India and Its Foreign Policy Since Independence — Various Authors

Read: 01-11-2024 • Rating: 7/10

This collection examines India's foreign policy from independence in 1947 through the early 21st century. Written by multiple Indian foreign policy scholars and practitioners, it provides an insider perspective on India's evolving role in world affairs, from Nehru's non-alignment to Modi's multi-alignment.

Founding Principles

Non-Alignment

Nehru's cornerstone policy was refusing to join either Cold War bloc. This wasn't neutrality, it was active independence. India would maintain strategic autonomy, cooperate with both superpowers when beneficial, lead the Non-Aligned Movement, focus on anti-colonialism and development. Pretty idealistic stuff.

Panchsheel (Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence)

Articulated in 1954 with China. Mutual respect for territorial integrity, non-aggression, non-interference in internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, peaceful coexistence. Ironic in hindsight because China invaded India in 1962. So much for peaceful coexistence.

Key Relationships

Pakistan

The defining relationship of Indian foreign policy. Three wars in 1947, 1965, 1971 and constant tension over Kashmir. The 1971 war created Bangladesh and established Indian regional dominance, but Kashmir remains unresolved. Forever unresolved probably.

China

From Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai, Indians and Chinese are brothers, to the shock of the 1962 war. Relations improved post-Cold War but border disputes persist. The asymmetry in power, China's rise versus India's slower growth, shapes the relationship. They're way ahead now.

United States

Complex evolution. 1947-1962 had Nehru's socialist leanings, American support for Pakistan. 1962-1971 saw brief warming after Chinese invasion, then cooling over Bangladesh war. 1971-1991 was tilt toward USSR with 1971 treaty, American alignment with Pakistan. 1991-2008 brought economic liberalization, nuclear tests, gradual rapprochement. 2008-present is strategic partnership, countering China. Full circle basically.

Soviet Union/Russia

India's most reliable partner during the Cold War. The USSR supported India against China and Pakistan, provided military equipment, vetoed anti-India UN resolutions, offered favorable trade terms. Solid ally. Post-Soviet relations remain warm but less strategic as India diversifies.

Middle East

Balancing act. Large Indian diaspora in Gulf states, oil dependence, support for Palestine ideologically, improving Israel ties pragmatically, managing both Arab and Iranian relationships. Threading the needle.

Nuclear Policy

The 1974 peaceful nuclear explosion and 1998 tests transformed India's strategic position. India maintains no first use doctrine, credible minimum deterrence, opposition to the Non-Proliferation Treaty as discriminatory, nuclear exceptionalism narrative. The 2008 US-India nuclear deal legitimized India's nuclear status while keeping the arsenal. Welcome to the club.

Regional Dominance

The Indira Doctrine

India as South Asia's natural leader, with special rights and responsibilities in the near abroad. This meant intervening in neighbors' affairs like Bangladesh 1971, Sri Lanka 1987, Maldives 1988. Opposing external power involvement. Using both aid and coercion. This assertiveness created resentment but established regional primacy. Big brother energy.

SAARC

The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation. Well-intentioned but ineffective, paralyzed by India-Pakistan hostility. Classic.

Economic Dimension

Pre-1991 foreign policy reflected domestic socialism. Import substitution, state control of trade, focus on self-reliance, limited foreign investment. Very ideological, not very practical.

Post-1991 economic liberalization transformed foreign policy. Look East now Act East policy toward Southeast Asia. Economic diplomacy prioritized. Seeking FDI and technology. Diaspora engagement for economic benefit. Money talks.

Major Policy Shifts

1962 China War

Shattered Nehruvian idealism. Military preparedness, realism, and strategic thinking became priorities. Wake up call.

1971 Bangladesh Liberation

Demonstrated India's power and willingness to act decisively. Also led to the Indo-Soviet treaty. Flex moment.

1991 Economic Crisis

Forced liberalization, which opened India to the world economically and diplomatically. Crisis as opportunity.

1998 Nuclear Tests

Came out of the closet as a nuclear power. Changed great power calculus regarding India. No more ambiguity.

2001 Parliament Attack and 2008 Mumbai Attacks

Terrorism became a central foreign policy issue. Complicated Pakistan policy and shaped counterterrorism cooperation. Ongoing nightmare.

Contemporary Challenges

Managing China

The central strategic challenge. Balancing economic interdependence, border disputes, competition for influence in Asia and beyond, managing China's Pakistan ties, Quad membership with US, Japan, Australia, India. Basically the main problem.

Pakistan

Persistent dilemma, engagement or isolation? Terrorism from Pakistan-based groups makes dialogue difficult, but nuclear weapons make confrontation dangerous. Damned if you do, damned if you don't.

Multi-Alignment

Modi-era shift from non-alignment to multi-alignment. Strategic partnership with US, maintaining Russia ties, improving Japan and Australia relations, Quad membership, engaging China despite tensions. Not alliances, but overlapping partnerships. Hedging bets.

Global Ambitions

Seeking UN Security Council permanent seat, greater role in global governance, recognition as a leading power, Vishwa Guru world teacher status. But limited by economic constraints, domestic challenges, regional instability. Want to be a superpower but not quite there yet.

Institutions and Decision-Making

Foreign policy remained largely centralized. Prime Minister dominant, Ministry of External Affairs executes, National Security Council coordinates, Parliament limited role, public opinion increasingly relevant. Each PM put their stamp. Nehru was the idealist, Indira the realist, Vajpayee reconciliation, Singh engagement, Modi assertive. Different styles, same core interests.

What strikes me is the continuity despite apparent shifts. Core interests remain constant. Strategic autonomy, regional primacy, great power status, managing Pakistan and China. The means evolved from non-alignment to multi-alignment, from ideology to pragmatism, but the ends stayed consistent.

India's foreign policy reflects its self-image, an ancient civilization with modern ambitions, a democracy among autocracies, powerful but constrained, seeking respect while demanding autonomy.

The China challenge looms largest going forward. Can India balance growing Chinese power while maintaining independence? That question will define 21st century Indian foreign policy. Everything else is secondary.